First Nations
First Nations are Aboriginal people of Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. Within the First Nations group, there are many different nations such as the Coast Salish Nation or the Cree Nation. Each Nation had an unique culture such as different foods, different methods of transportation, special hunting strategies and system of governance. There is no such thing as Pan-Aboriginal culture; each Nation is very different from one another. The First Nations did not have an written language so they passed down stories and history orally from generation to generation. There are five groups of people based on their geographical locations: the West Coast people, the Plateau people, the Plains people, the Woodlands people, and the Subarctic people. The arctic people (a.k.a the Inuit people) are not included in the First Nations category as they are grouped separately.
West Coast People
The people of the West Coast are the most diverse in terms of languages and Nations than any other Aboriginal group in Canada. They reside along the West Coast of British Columbia where there is an abundance of resources, lots of rain, and lots of trees. The five main groups are the Haida, the Tlingit, the Tsimshian, the Nuu-chah-nulth, and the Salishan. Cedar and Seafood are the most resources for these people. Cedar is used to construct longhouses for shelter, make tools, and build canoes for transportation. Even some of the clothing is made from cedar! The bark of the tree is usually used to make clothing while the interior is used to carve canoes, houses, and tools.
Seafood is a main part of West Coast people's diet. They ate crabs, salmon, cod, and shellfish and occasionally hunted game animals such as deer and bear during the summer. Foods that were not eaten were dried and stored for the winter. The people of the West Coast sometimes held ceremonies called potlatches. A potlatch is held to signify a person's change in social status such as marriage. Until recently, these ceremonies were banned by the Canadian government and those who held potlatches were quickly arrested.
A cedar longhouse from the West Coast.
Seafood is a main part of West Coast people's diet. They ate crabs, salmon, cod, and shellfish and occasionally hunted game animals such as deer and bear during the summer. Foods that were not eaten were dried and stored for the winter. The people of the West Coast sometimes held ceremonies called potlatches. A potlatch is held to signify a person's change in social status such as marriage. Until recently, these ceremonies were banned by the Canadian government and those who held potlatches were quickly arrested.
Plateau People
The plateau people live in the southern interior of British Columbia and Alberta. The plateau area is dry and has little precipitation compared to the West Coast They are made up of eight groups: the Tsilhqot'in, the Carrier, the Nicola, the Secwepemc, the Stl'atl'imx, the Okanagan, the Stl'atl'imx, and the Ktunaxa. The plateau people were semi-nomadic; they migrated around to hunt game animals such as deer and bear during the summer and lived in permanent semi-underground structures called pit houses during the winter. Their diets consisted of salmon, roots, berries, meat from animals and etc. Fur from game was used to construct tipis for the summer and make clothing. Bones and stones were used to make tools such as spears and cutting knives. Feathers were used to decorate clothing. Men would do the hunting while women would cook, gather roots and berries, and weave clothing. Finally, the plateau people's society was communal, which meant that everyone was equal and that everything was shared among families.
A pit house in the plateau during the winter.
Plains People
The people of the Plains are the iconic "Hollywood" aboriginals that you see in cowboy themed movies. These people lived in the flat plains of southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The three main languages spoken in this region are Algonquian, Athapascan, and Siouan. The Blackfoot Confederacy, the Plains Cree, the Plains Ojibwa, and the Sioux are the four main groups of Plains people. Their main game animal was the buffalo. In fact, they depended on the buffalo for everything! Their clothes were made out of buffalo hide and buffalo bones were used to craft tools. Buffalo meat was cooked or made into Pemmican. Absolutely nothing from the buffalo was wasted! The tipi was their choice of housing. It was covered with mainly buffalo hide and the interior was warm during the winter and cool during the summer. The people of the Plains were nomadic and followed the buffaloes wherever they went. So you may be wondering, how were the buffaloes hunted? Well, the hunters would chase the buffaloes towards a cliff and the buffaloes would fall to their deaths. All these hunts were managed by the band chief and the council of elders.
Woodland People
The Woodland people are located in Eastern Canada, including Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime provinces. They are divided into two major groups based on their language and whether they're farmers or hunters. The Iroquoians are the farmers while the Algonquians are the hunters. The Woodlands group consists of several nations including the Huron, the Iroquois, the Ojibwa, the Mi'kmaq, and etc. Those who farmed the land (Iroquoians) grew corns, beans, and squash. Like the West Coast people, the Iroquoians lived in permanent settlements with an abundance of cropland. This has led to a relatively high population of Iroquoians compared to other First Nations Groups. Iroquoian society was a matrilineal society. Chiefs were determined from the mother's side and husbands would live with their wives in their longhouses. The Algonquians, on the other hand, were semi-nomadic and heavily relied on hunting and fishing to obtain their food. One main resource they relied heavily on was the birch tree. It was used to construct everything from baskets to canoes, similar to the way the West Coast people utilized cedar trees. Unlike Iroquoians who lived in massive longhouses, the Algonquians lived tent structures called wigmans. They were much smaller than longhouses and can be easily assembled.
A Iroquoian longhouse.
Subarctic People
The Subarctic group has the least population density of all the aboriginal groups in Canada. The location of the subarctic people stretches from Yukon all the way to Northern Quebec and Newfoundland. Two languages are spoken in the region: Algonquian and Athapascan. Algonquian is spoken by the eastern subarctic groups while Athapascan is spoken by the western groups. Some of the nations that belong in this area are the Dene and the Inland Tlingt. The climate here is very harsh with hot summers and cold winters. Food is scarce and the people here depend on hunting and gathering for survival. Once there is no more food in a particular area, the subarctic people migrate to another place. Since the climate, especially during winter, is very harsh, technologies such as snowshoes were designed to help the subarctics with travelling and everyday life.
Inuit
The people of the Arctic are known as Inuit, which means our land in Inuktitut. They are located throughout northern Canada. The cold temperatures, extremely harsh climates, and lack of food made their culture very different from the other aboriginals in Canada. There are eight groups of Inuits: the Labrador Inuits, the Ungava, the Baffin Island Inuits, the Caribou Inuits, the Igloolik, the Netsilik, the Copper Inuits, and the West Arctic Inuits. The Inuits are believed to be the descendants of the Thule people of coastal Alaska around 1000 C.E. The main language spoken, Inuktitut, has six dialects and is the official language of the territory of Nunavut.
The Inuit economy relies entirely on hunting and fishing. Nothing was wasted. As a result, they became expert hunters and fishers. Some of the animals hunted are seals, whales, caribou, and polar bears. Since food was scarce, food sources are considered community property and is shared equally among members of the group. Greediness was look down upon and can be severely punished. For shelter, the Inuits build snow structures called igloos during the winter and fur covered tents during the summer.
An igloo.
The Inuit economy relies entirely on hunting and fishing. Nothing was wasted. As a result, they became expert hunters and fishers. Some of the animals hunted are seals, whales, caribou, and polar bears. Since food was scarce, food sources are considered community property and is shared equally among members of the group. Greediness was look down upon and can be severely punished. For shelter, the Inuits build snow structures called igloos during the winter and fur covered tents during the summer.
Metis
The Metis were people that were half-Aboriginal and half-European (usually Scottish, English, or French). They originated from the 17th century during the fur trade when French fur traders married Native women. Afterwards they had kids and those kids are the descendants of the Metis Nation. The Metis settled in the prairies of Saskatchewan and Manitoba along the Red River. They eventually adopted the Plains lifestyle, had a huge chuck of land and became experts at buffalo hunting. They also became fur traders and worked for the Hudson Bay Company and the North West Company. However, that did not last very long.
During the 19th century, the Hudson Bay Company sold some of Rupert's land to European immigrants. Many immigrants settled near Red River and this created a conflict between the Metis and the immigrants. Trade routes were cut and the N.W Company was forced to merge with the H.B.C. The Metis tried to resist but failed and their leader, Louis Riel was forced to go to the US in exile. The government of Canada also wanted to unite Canada by building a railway across it. In order to do this, they forced the Plains people to sign a treaty that grants the government land in exchange for food and other necessities. Second, the Canadian government bought Rupert's Land from the H.B.C which further increased immigration to the west. The Metis were pushed westwards towards the Rocky Mountains and the Canadian government ignored their concerns. In 1884, the Metis sent a petition to the government that allows the Metis to go back to their lands. The Canadian government promised to look at the issue but did not. Eventually, the Metis had enough. After coming back from Montana, USA, Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont founded The Metis Provisional Government after hearing that 500 N.W Police officers are marching towards their land. This led to a blood rebellion called the Northwest Rebellion. Although the Metis won some battles during the beginning of the rebellion, the rebellion was eventually crushed and Louis Riel was hanged afterwards.
A portrait of Louis Riel.
During the 19th century, the Hudson Bay Company sold some of Rupert's land to European immigrants. Many immigrants settled near Red River and this created a conflict between the Metis and the immigrants. Trade routes were cut and the N.W Company was forced to merge with the H.B.C. The Metis tried to resist but failed and their leader, Louis Riel was forced to go to the US in exile. The government of Canada also wanted to unite Canada by building a railway across it. In order to do this, they forced the Plains people to sign a treaty that grants the government land in exchange for food and other necessities. Second, the Canadian government bought Rupert's Land from the H.B.C which further increased immigration to the west. The Metis were pushed westwards towards the Rocky Mountains and the Canadian government ignored their concerns. In 1884, the Metis sent a petition to the government that allows the Metis to go back to their lands. The Canadian government promised to look at the issue but did not. Eventually, the Metis had enough. After coming back from Montana, USA, Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont founded The Metis Provisional Government after hearing that 500 N.W Police officers are marching towards their land. This led to a blood rebellion called the Northwest Rebellion. Although the Metis won some battles during the beginning of the rebellion, the rebellion was eventually crushed and Louis Riel was hanged afterwards.
After European Contact
At first, the aboriginal and the European settlers were living in peace together. After the creation of the first European settlement in Canada in 1534, local aboriginals became involved with the fur trade. First Nations exchanged animal furs for tools and utilities such as pots, pans, and guns. The influence of Europeans on aboriginal society was huge. First of all, aboriginal society became very patrilineal. Before the arrival of Europeans, aboriginal women were treated equally as men and some first nations' groups had matrilineal societies. Aboriginals were eventually forced to adopt the European's belief that men are superior to women. Aboriginal women were stripped of their status, lost all their rights in society, and lost power. Secondly, the European unintentionally brought smallpox over to North America. Since the aboriginals have never encountered the disease and do not have immunity to it, millions became infected and died. This catastrophic event created distrust between aboriginals and Europeans. Aboriginals became desperate as people were sick and unable to work. They were eventually forced to surrender their land in exchange food and other necessities. Lastly, aboriginals across Canada faced an enormous amount of racism and discrimination, especially from the government. The government thought that aboriginal culture was "inferior" and that the "European/Canadian" culture was way more advanced. So they instituted the Indian Act, which restricted the rights of First Nations inside and outside the reserve and the Indian status. For example, they were not allowed to do anything with the reserve land without approval from an Indian agent.
Residential Schools and the Aftermath
Residential Schools were introduced to assimilate the younger generations of aboriginals into Canadian society. They were run by churches and funded by the government. At first, attendance was voluntary but it later became compulsory for all aboriginal children to attend residential schools. Children were forcibly removed from their families and their parents faced punishment if they refused to send their children to school. In the schools, they learned about Christianity and Canadian culture. Students who practiced their own culture were severely punished. Since the schools were not properly monitored, teachers, priests, and nuns assaulted their pupils sexually, physically, and emotionally. Along with that, the schools were severely underfunded so they relied on forced labour from their students in order to maintain the residential schools. The last residential school finally closed in 1996.
Although the intent of the schools was to assimilate aboriginals and make them equal, this did not happen. Students who graduated from residential schools were barely educated. Men had to do manual labour for a living. However, aboriginal women had it the worst. Since they were unable to do these jobs, aboriginal women were forced into prostitution. Substance usage became common among these women because it relieved them while they were on the job. Native women who married white men were stripped of their Indian and were unable to go back to their reserves or received protection from the Indian Act. Parents raised at residential schools would become abusive towards their children because they have been treated like this since they were young. The children became depressed and turned to drugs and alcohol for relief. This resulted in them being incapable of learning and work. Because of these factors, Aboriginals have the highest dropout rates and are the poorest in Canada. In 1985, Bill C-31 was introduced to restore the Indian status to people who have lost it even though their children will not gain the status. Although apologies have been given out by the Canadian government, it wasn't enough to relieve the pain that many suffered while in residential schools.
All photos are from Flickr. Links are embedded in the pictures.
Although the intent of the schools was to assimilate aboriginals and make them equal, this did not happen. Students who graduated from residential schools were barely educated. Men had to do manual labour for a living. However, aboriginal women had it the worst. Since they were unable to do these jobs, aboriginal women were forced into prostitution. Substance usage became common among these women because it relieved them while they were on the job. Native women who married white men were stripped of their Indian and were unable to go back to their reserves or received protection from the Indian Act. Parents raised at residential schools would become abusive towards their children because they have been treated like this since they were young. The children became depressed and turned to drugs and alcohol for relief. This resulted in them being incapable of learning and work. Because of these factors, Aboriginals have the highest dropout rates and are the poorest in Canada. In 1985, Bill C-31 was introduced to restore the Indian status to people who have lost it even though their children will not gain the status. Although apologies have been given out by the Canadian government, it wasn't enough to relieve the pain that many suffered while in residential schools.
All photos are from Flickr. Links are embedded in the pictures.
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